Comprehensive recycling technologies for spent ions batteries

With the application of electric vehicles and portable electronics, the closed-loop utilization of end-of-life lithium-ion batteries is urgent for the further development of Li-ions batteries. Recycling and Regeneration of Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries: Technologies, Applications, and Sustainable Futures provide systematic recycling-chain technologies, from battery dismantling to direct regeneration, covering pretreatment, cascade utilization, metallurgical extraction, direct regeneration, and life cycle assessment.

Herein, the production volume and distribution of spent lithium-ion batteries was firstly described. Also, for pretreatment, they were further detailed discussed. Then, about the treatment of spent batteries, the contents, including cascade utilization, hydrometallurgical/pyrometallurgical methods and direct regeneration were summarized. Moreover, pollution prevention strategies, environmental and economic impact evaluations, and global policy frameworks are thoroughly reviewed.

Moreover, the book also covers:

• Emerging applications in solid-state and lithium iron phosphate battery systems
• Environmental and economic lifecycle assessment methodologies
• Policy and regulatory perspectives shaping global approaches
• Future outlooks on large-scale recycling technologies

Written for electrochemists, materials scientists, environmental chemists, chemical engineers, process engineers, and power technology specialists, this reference delivers the technical depth required to evaluate, design, and optimize spent LIB recycling and regeneration processes within a circular economy framework.

List of Contributors ix
Preface xiii

1 Introduction 1
Hai Lei, Chao Zhu, Jiexiang Li, Hanyu Zhou, Xiangjin Lu, Xizhuo Chen, Yue Yang

1.1 Production Volume and Distribution of Spent LIBs 1
1.2 Strategic Significance of Spent LIBs Recycling 3
1.3 Global Industrialization Landscape of Spent LIBs Recycling 4
1.4 Full-chain Technological Process for High-value Recycling of Spent LIBs 5
1.5 Overview of Global Progress in LIBs Recycling 6

2 Pretreatment 11
Shuaiqi Gong, Penghui Shi

2.1 Battery Structure and Classification 11
2.1.1 The Core Structure of Cell 11
2.1.2 Classified by Shape Structure: Cylindrical, Square, and Soft Bag (Polymer) 12
2.1.3 Factors Influencing the Selection of Shape Structure 18
2.1.4 Demands Analysis of Battery Assembly Process for Spent Battery Recycling 19
2.2 Detection and Evaluation 20
2.2.1 Physical Testing Methods 20
2.2.2 Chemical Testing Methods 22
2.2.3 Electrochemical Testing Methods 24
2.2.4 Comparison and Analysis of Detection Technologies 26
2.3 Safe Discharge 31
2.3.1 Physical Discharge Method 32
2.3.2 Chemical Discharge Method 33
2.4 Disassembly and Crushing 37
2.4.1 CMP Structure Battery Pack Disassembly 37
2.4.2 Battery Cell Collection 38
2.4.3 Fragmentation 39
2.5 Material Sorting 43
2.5.1 Screening and Pneumatic Separation 43
2.5.2 Electromagnetic Separation 45
2.5.3 Flotation 48
2.5.4 Other Sorting Methods 50
2.6 Summary 51

3 Cascaded Utilization 57
Zeyu Dong, Gaoyun Tan, Zihao Lu, Yunpeng Wen, Runxuan Chen, Xizhuo Chen, Yue Yang

3.1 The Hub of Resource Recycling and Economic Benefits 57
3.2 Resource Efficiency and Low-carbon Transition Cornerstone 57
3.3 Safety Compliance and Systemic Necessity 58
3.4 Sorting of Retired LIBs 59
3.5 Sorting and Reconfiguration 60
3.6 Equalization Technology 64
3.7 Safety Management Technology 66
3.8 Safety Management Development Needs: Development of Highly Compatible BMS Systems 68
3.9 Application Scenarios for Cascading Use (Echelon Utilization) 68
3.10 Chapter Summary 70

4 Metallurgical Extraction Techniques 75
Xuejing Qiu, Peixiang Gao, Yimeng Zhang, Lingling Xie, Limin Zhu, Xiaoyu Cao

4.1 Pyrometallurgical Extraction Techniques 75
4.1.1 Application of Pyrometallurgical Recycling in the Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4, LFP) 75
4.1.2 Analysis of Pyrometallurgical Recovery Technology for LFP 76
4.1.3 Application of Pyrometallurgical Recycling in the Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LiCoO2, LCO) 77
4.1.4 Analysis of Pyrometallurgical Recovery Technology for LCO 79
4.1.5 Application of Pyrometallurgical Recovery in Ternary Batteries 80
4.1.6 Analysis of Pyrometallurgical Recovery Technology for NCM 82
4.1.7 Application of Pyrometallurgical Recycling in Solid-state Batteries 82
4.1.8 Analysis of Pyrometallurgical Recovery for Solid-state Technology 84
4.1.9 Demand for Pyrometallurgical Recycling Technology Targeting Cathode Materials from Spent LIBs 85
4.2 Hydrometallurgical Extraction Technology 86
4.2.1 Application of Hydrometallurgical Recycling in the LFP 86Contents vii
4.2.2 Analysis of Hydrometallurgical Recycling for LFP 94
4.2.3 Application of Hydrometallurgical Recycling for LCO 95
4.2.4 Technical Analysis of the Hydrometallurgical Process for LCO Recovery 98
4.2.5 Application of Hydrometallurgical Recycling for Ternary Battery 99
4.2.6 Analysis of Hydrometallurgical Recovery of Ternary Cathode Materials 110
4.2.7 Application of Hydrometallurgical Recovery for Solid-state Batteries 111
4.2.8 Analysis of Hydrometallurgical Recycling for Solid-state Batteries 112
4.2.9 Demand for Hydrometallurgical Recycling for Cathode Materials from Spent LIBs 114
4.