This book is an introduction to biophilosophy, written primarily for the student of biology, the practicing biologist, and the educated layperson. It does not presuppose technical knowledge in biology or philosophy. However, it requires a willingness to examine the most basic foundations of biology which are so often taken for granted. Furthermore, it points to the bottomlessness of these foundations, the mystery of life, the Unnamable .,. I have tried to further the awareness that biological statements are based on philosophical assumptions which are present in our minds even before we enter the laboratory. These assumptions, which often harbor strong commitments, are exposed throughout the book. I have tried to show how they influence concrete biolog ical research as well as our personal existence and society. Thus, emphasis is placed on the connection between biophilosophy and biological research on the one hand, and biophilosophy and the human condition on the other.

- On the importance of Biophilosophy; Definitions

1 Theories and Hypotheses
1.1 Introduction - Questions and problems
1.2 The Aim of Science - General and singular propositions. Theories, laws, rules, hypotheses, auxiliary hypotheses, ad hoc hypotheses, working hypotheses, models, facts
1.3 Scientific Methodology or How We Gain Scientific Knowledge
1.3.1 General Considerations - Importance of methodology. Laboratory methodology
1.3.2 Induction and the Hypothetico-deductive Method
1.3.3 Validation of Hypotheses, or: Is Certainty Attainable?
1.3.3.1 The First Postulate of Validation - Hypotheses may be proved (justificationism). Criticism
1.3.3.2 The Second Postulate of Validation - Hypotheses cannot be proved, but may be disproved (falsified) (falsificationism). Criticism
1.3.3.3 The Third Postulate of Validation - Hypotheses can neither be proved, nor disproved; they may only be either confirmed or disconfirmed. Internal and external factors of science
1.3.4 A Systems Model of Scientific Methodology (Laszlo's Model) - Empirical input, ideals (values) of science, and the relation of resistance factors to innovation. Irrationally in science. Demarcation of science
1.4 Is Scientific Progress Possible? - Incommensurability. Progress within paradigms. Coexistence of schools of thought. Unity of science. Complementarity and perspectivism
1.5 The Semantic View of Theories
1.6 Conclusions
1.7 Summary
2 Laws, Explanation, Prediction, and Understanding
2.1 Laws - Definition. Deterministic and probalistic laws. Accidental generalizations. Process and coexistence laws. Law and order versus chaos: is nature lawful?
2.2 Explanation - Two basic requirements for scientific explanation. Deductive-nomological explanation. Probabilistic explanation.Covering-law model of explanation versus narrative explanation. Other notions of explanation
2.3 Prediction - Characterization. Comparison of prediction and explanation. Predictive power and its limitations
2.4 Understanding - Understanding and explanation
2.5 Summary
3 Facts
3.1 Introduction - Facts as singular propositions
3.2 First Definition of 'Fact' : A proposition of a real particularity. Criticism of naive realism
3.3 Second Definition of 'Fact' : A proposition of an objective datum of perception. Perceiving and sensing. Primary realm. Culture- and theory-dependence of facts
3.4 Objectivity - Two definitions. Relativity and culture-dependence of objectivity. States of consciousness
3.5 Facts and Reality - 'Datum' ('donné'),'observation', 'factum' ('fait'; 'Tatsache'). Absolute and moderate relativism. Criticism of absolute relativism. Patterned continuum
3.6 Experience - Perceiving, sensing, and experience as being (Zen)
3.7 Summary
4 Concepts and Classification
4.1 Concepts
4.1.1 Introduction - Concepts as abstractions. Abstraction as selection. Examples
4.1.2 Nominalism Versus Realism - Controversy over universals
4.1.3 Degree of Adequacy of Concepts - Woodger's map analogy. Restriction of map analogy. Examples. Complementarity
4.1.4 Limits of Concepts - Intension and extension of concepts. Meaninglessness. Example
4.1.5 Classification of Concepts - Qualitative, comparative, and quantitative concepts. Individual, class, relation, and quantitative concepts
4.1.6 Term, Concept, and Reality - Three level scheme
4.1.7 Definition - Importance of definition. Primitive terms
4.1.8 Operationism - Advantages and disadvantages
4.1.9 Are There Biological Kinds of Concepts? - Historical,functional, and polytypic (= polythetic) concepts. Significance of polytypic concepts. Fuzzy sets. Injunction. Types as injunctions
4.1.10 Fundamental Conclusions and Consequences - Fragmentation and wholeness (unity)
4.2 Classification
4.2.1 Classes - Definitions of taxonomy and systematics. Class concepts. Species concepts. The biological species as an individual
4.2.2 Systems of Classification - Three steps in the construction of s